References

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Allard, K., & Roos, C. (2025). Identity formation in bimodal-bilingual children of Deaf adults (Codas). The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/jdsade/enaf040

The study found that early exposure to both signed and spoken languages supports flexible

communication skills, cultural awareness, and complex identity development. The research

highlights the positive developmental outcomes associated with bimodal bilingualism and

emphasizes the importance of accessible language-rich environments in shaping social and

personal identity.

Bailes, C. N., Erting, C. J., Erting, L. C., & Thumann-Prezioso, C. (2009). Language and literacy 

acquisition through parental mediation in American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, 9(4), 417-456. https://doi.org/10.1353/sls.0.0022

Examine how parental interaction in American Sign Language (ASL) supports language and literacy development in Deaf children. The study found that Deaf children who experienced rich, consistent ASL communication with caregivers demonstrated stronger language development, early literacy skills, and greater engagement in shared reading activities. The research emphasizes the important role of parent-child communication and exposure to accessible language in supporting cognitive and academic development.

Beeney, J. E., Wright, A. G. C., Stepp, S. D., Hallquist, M. N., Lazarus, S. A., Beeney, J. R. S., Scott, L. N., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2017). Disorganized attachment and personality functioning in adults: A latent class analysis. Personality Disorders, 8(3), 206–216.  https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000184

This study examines disorganized attachment patterns and their relationship to personality functioning in adults using latent class analysis. Findings show that individuals with disorganized attachment histories are more likely to experience difficulties with emotional regulation, interpersonal relationships, and identity integration. The research highlights how early attachment disruptions can have long-term effects on psychological functioning, particularly in areas related to emotional stability and relational coherence.

Bergeron, F., Berland, A., Demers, D., & Gobeil, S. (2020). Contemporary speech and oral language care for Deaf and hard-of-hearing children using hearing devices. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 378.  https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9020378

Review contemporary speech and oral language approaches for Deaf and Hard of Hearing children who use hearing devices such as hearing aids and cochlear implants. The article found that outcomes in spoken language development vary widely among children and are influenced by multiple factors, including age of intervention, family involvement, consistency of access to sound, and overall language exposure. The authors emphasize that hearing technology alone does not guarantee age-appropriate spoken language development and that ongoing language support remains essential.

Cheng, Q., Roth, A., Halgren, E., & Mayberry, R. I. (2019). Effects of early language deprivation on brain connectivity: Language pathways in deaf native and late first-language learners of American sign language. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 320. 

https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00320

This neuroimaging study examines how early language deprivation affects brain connectivity, particularly within neural pathways associated with language processing. Findings show that individuals who experience delayed access to a fully accessible first language exhibit altered connectivity in key language-related brain networks compared to individuals with early language exposure. The results demonstrate that early language access is critical for typical development of neural language systems, and that delays in first-language acquisition can lead to long-lasting differences in brain organization and language processing efficiency.

Clark, M. D., Cue, K. R., Delgado, N. J., Greene-Woods, A. D., & Wolsey, J. L, (2020). Early intervention protocols: Proposing a default bimodal bilingual approach for deaf children. Maternal Child Health Journal 24, 1339–1344.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-03005-2

The authors found that early exposure to both modalities supports stronger language acquisition outcomes and reduces the risk of language deprivation.  The study recommends that early intervention systems prioritize both visual and auditory channels to promote optimal developmental outcomes for Deaf and Hard of Hearing children. 

Delcenserie, A., Genesee, F., & Champoux, F. (2024). Exposure to sign language prior and after cochlear implantation increases language and cognitive skills in deaf children. Developmental Science, 27(4), Article e13481. https://doi.org/10.1111/ desc.13481

This study examines the impact of sign language exposure before and after cochlear implantation in Deaf children. Findings show that early and continued access to sign language supports stronger language and cognitive development compared to delayed or limited exposure. The authors emphasize that sign language access does not hinder spoken language development and provides essential early language input.

DesGeorges, J. (2016). Avoiding assumptions: Communication decision made by hearing parents of deaf children. AMA Journal of Ethics. 19(4), 442-446. https://doi.org/10.1001/amajethics.2016.18.4.sect1-1604

Explores how hearing parents make communication decisions for Deaf children and the importance of avoiding assumptions about language development. The article emphasizes that families need balanced, accurate information about communication options to make informed choices that support long-term language access and development.

Duncan, J., Levesque, E., & Snoddon, K. (2023). The rights of deaf children. Deafness & Education International, 25(3), 157–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/14643154.2023.22447 53

This article examines the rights of Deaf children within education and language access contexts. The authors emphasize that Deaf children have a fundamental right to early access to a fully accessible language, including sign language, to support equitable development. The work highlights the importance of policy and educational practices that ensure language access as a human rights issue.

Fitzpatrick, E. M., Hamel, C., Stevens, A., Pratt, M., Moher, D., Doucet, S. P., Neuss, D., Bernstein, A., & Na, E. (2016). Sign language and spoken language for children with hearing Loss: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 137(1), 10.1542/peds. 2015-1974.  https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1974

Conduct a systematic review comparing sign language and spoken language outcomes in children with hearing loss. The review found that outcomes vary widely and are influenced by early access to language, intervention timing, and communication environment. The authors emphasize that no single communication approach guarantees optimal outcomes and that accessible language exposure is critical for development.

Gallaudet, E. M. (1881). The Milan Convention. American Annals of the Deaf, 26(1), 1–16. 

https:// doi. org/ 10. 1353/ 2Faad. 2010. 0016

This article documents the proceedings and impact of the Milan Conference of 1880, which 

endorsed oralism and largely excluded sign language from Deaf education. The work highlights a pivotal historical event that influenced educational policies for Deaf children for generations and contributed to long-standing barriers to sign language access.

Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-191. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301 

Introduces a framework distinguishing direct, structural, and cultural violence, including how systems and policies can unintentionally contribute to harm. This work is often used to understand how structural barriers, such as restricted language access, can contribute to long-term inequities in health, education, and social participation.

Glickman, N. S. (2009). Adapting best practices in CBT for deaf and hearing persons with 

language and learning challenges. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 19(4), 354–384. 

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017969

This article examines how cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be adapted for Deaf and hearing individuals with language and learning challenges. The study emphasizes that effective mental health services must account for language access, communication differences, and cognitive processing needs to ensure meaningful therapeutic outcomes.

Hall, M. L., Eigsti, I. M., Bortfeld, H., & Lillo-Martin, D. (2018). Executive function in deaf children: Auditory access and language access. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing

Research, 61(8), 19 0–1988. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018JSLHRL170281

Examines executive function development in Deaf children and the role of language access. The study found that children with stronger early language exposure demonstrate better cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control, highlighting the importance of early accessible language for cognitive development.

Hall, W. C. (2017).  What you don’t know can hurt you:  The risk of language deprivation by impairing sign language development in deaf children.  Maternal and Child Health and Child Health Journal, 21, 961-965.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s1900600502287-y

This article examines the risks of limiting sign language access for Deaf children during early development. The author argues that restricting access to a fully accessible language can contribute to language deprivation and negatively affect cognitive, educational, and psychosocial outcomes.

Henner, J., Caldwell-Harris, C. L., et al. (2016).  American sign language syntax and audiological reasoning skills are influenced by early acquisition and age of entry to signing school for the deaf.  Sec. Cognitive Science 7.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01982.  

This study examines how early exposure to American Sign Language (ASL) influences cognitive and linguistic development. Findings show that individuals who acquire ASL early demonstrate stronger syntactic skills and improved reasoning abilities compared to those with delayed exposure. The results highlight the importance of early, accessible language input for supporting both language structure development and higher-order cognitive skills in Deaf individuals.

Humphries, T., Kushalnagar, P., Mathur, G., Napoli, D., Padden, C., Rathmann, C., & Smith, S. (2019). Support for parents of deaf children: Common questions and informed, evidence-based

answers. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 118, 134–142. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijorl.2018.12.036

Critique current systems of care for Deaf children and argue that many existing approaches fail to provide adequate early language access. The article highlights how system-level practices can contribute to language deprivation and emphasizes the need for structural change that ensures early exposure to accessible language, particularly signed languages.

Humphries, T., Mathur, G., Napoli, D. J., Padden, C., & Rathmann, C. (2022). Deaf children 

need rich language input from the start: Support in advising parents. Children, 9, Article 1609. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9111609

Emphasize the importance of rich, accessible language input from birth for Deaf children. The authors found that early exposure to a fully accessible language supports stronger cognitive, social, and emotional development. The article guides professionals in advising families and stresses that delayed language access can have lasting developmental consequences.

Kushalnagar, P., Ryan, C., Paludneviciene, R., Spellun, A., & Gulati, S. (2020). Advers childhood communication experiences associated with an increased risk of chronic diseases in adults who are deaf. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(4), 548–554.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.04.016

This study examines how adverse childhood communication experiences affect long-term health outcomes in Deaf adults. Findings show that limited communication access during childhood is associated with increased risk for chronic health conditions in adulthood, highlighting the lasting impact of early language and communication barriers.

Lillo-Martin, D., Chen Pichler, D., & Gale, E. (2025). Language and cognitive development in 

bimodal bilingual Deaf children in hearing families: Three case studies: Behavioral Sciences, 15(8), Article 1124. https://doi.org/10.3390/ bs150 81124

This case study research examines Deaf children in hearing families who develop bimodal bilingualism through exposure to both signed and spoken language. Findings suggest that early access to American Sign Language alongside spoken language supports strong language development and age-appropriate cognitive skills. The study highlights that bimodal bilingual environments can support robust linguistic and cognitive outcomes when children have consistent access to a fully accessible language from an early age.

Lillo-Martin, D., Gagne, D., & Chen Pichler, D. (2022). Lessons to be learned from Bimodal Bilingualism. Hrvatskarevija za rehabilitacijska istraživanja, 58 (Special Issue), 83–97. 

https://doi.org/10.31299/hrri.58.si.4a

This article examines bimodal bilingualism in Deaf children who are exposed to both signed and spoken languages. The authors found that access to both language modalities supports healthy language, cognitive, and social development, reinforcing the benefits of early accessible bilingual language exposure.

Paley, B., & Hajal, N. J. (2022). Conceptualizing emotion regulation and coregulation as family-

level phenomena. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(1), 19–43. 

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567- 022-00378-4

This article examines emotion regulation and co-regulation within the family system, emphasizing that emotional development is shaped through ongoing caregiver–child interaction rather than individual ability alone. Findings highlight that children develop stronger emotional regulation skills when caregivers provide consistent, responsive, and attuned support. The study reinforces the importance of relational stability and caregiver responsiveness in supporting healthy social and emotional development in early childhood.

Pénicaud, S., Klein, D., Zatorre, R. J., Chen, J. K., Witcher, P., Hyde, K., & Mayberry, R. I. 

(2013). Structural brain changes linked to delayed first language acquisition in congenitally deaf individuals. NeuroImage, 66, 42–49. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro image.2012.09.076

This neuroimaging study demonstrates that delayed first-language acquisition is associated with measurable structural changes in brain regions involved in language processing. Findings indicate that individuals who experience delayed access to a fully accessible language show altered neural organization compared to those with early language exposure. The study highlights the importance of early language access for typical brain development, regardless of modality.

Pontecorvo, E., Higgins, M., Mora, J., Lieberman, A. M., Pyers, J., & Caselli, N. K. (2023). Learning a sign language does not hinder acquisition of a spoken language. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(4), 1291–1308. 

https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_JSLHR-22-00505

This study examines whether learning a sign language affects spoken language acquisition in Deaf children. Findings show that exposure to sign language does not hinder spoken language development and may support overall language growth by providing early accessible communication.

Schaefer-Salins, E. (2022). Influences on the attachment style of deaf adults with hearing 

parents. JADARA, 55(1), 35. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/jadara/vol55/is1/3

This study explores how early communication access and family dynamics influence attachment styles in Deaf adults raised by hearing parents. Findings suggest that limited early language access and communication barriers may contribute to insecure attachment patterns, while early access to effective communication supports healthier relational development. The research highlights the long-term impact of early caregiver–child communication on emotional security and identity formation.

Skotara, N., Salden, U., Kugow, M., et al. (2012). The influence of language deprivation in early childhood on L2 processing: An ERP comparison of deaf native signers and deaf signers with a delayed language acquisition. BMC Neuroscience, 13, Article 44.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-13-44.

This neurocognitive study compares Deaf individuals with early language exposure to those with delayed language acquisition. Findings show that individuals who experienced early language deprivation demonstrate differences in brain responses during second-language processing, indicating lasting effects on linguistic and neural development. The study emphasizes that early access to a fully accessible language is critical for typical language processing and cognitive development.

Terry, J., & Rance, J. (2023). System that support hearing families with deaf children: A scoping review. PloS ONE, 18(11), e0288771.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288771

This scoping review examines existing systems and interventions designed to support hearing families raising Deaf and Hard of Hearing children. Findings highlight variability in service quality and emphasize the importance of coordinated accessible support systems that include language access guidance, family education, and early intervention resources. The study underscores the need for structured, family-centered systems that prioritize early communication access and informed decision-making.

Tsou, Y. T., Li, B., Eichengreen, A., Frijns, J. H., & Rieffe, C. (2021). Emotions in deaf and hard-of-hearing and typically hearing children. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 26(4), 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafedenab011

This study compares emotional development in Deaf and Hard of Hearing children with that of hearing peers. Findings suggest that differences in emotional understanding and expression are often linked to language access rather than hearing status itself. The research emphasizes that when Deaf and Hard of Hearing children have adequate language input, their emotional development aligns more closely with that of hearing children.

Vernon, M., & Rich, S. (1997). Pedophilia and deafness. American Annals of the Deaf, 142(4), 300–311. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012. 0313

This article examines the vulnerability of Deaf individuals to abuse and exploitation, particularly in situations involving limited communication access and social isolation. The authors emphasize that communication barriers, lack of accessible education, and reduced access to information may increase risk factors and limit opportunities for reporting or intervention.

Wilkinson, E., & Morford, J. (2020). How bilingualism contributes to healthy development in 

deaf children: A public health perspective. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 24, 1330–1338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02976-6

This article examines how bilingualism, including exposure to both signed and spoken languages, supports healthy development in Deaf children from a public health perspective. The authors found that early bilingual language access promotes stronger cognitive, social, emotional, and educational outcomes while reducing the risks associated with language deprivation.